A distinction is commonly drawn between cases where one language is holding its own despite the influence of powerful neighbors (language maintenance) and cases where a language has yielded to this influence…Other possibilities include extensive vocabulary borrowing by one of the languages, or the emergence of a new ‘hybrid’…Lastly, as shown by the history of the Celtic languages, the contact can lead to a language being completely eliminated (language death). (Crystal 360)
Extinction of a language stands for the diminishing of not only language variety on planet earth but the loss of a whole way of life as perceived through and concretized in the use of it. The culture of a community is embodied in and distinguished by its language use—literal and idiomatic. The identity (both ethnic and cultural) of a people, especially in a multilingual country like India, therefore, is determined by the language they use. The loss of it, thus, marks the loss of all those customs and beliefs, folk-ethnic traditions of performing arts, orature handed down the generations through myths, legends and religious rituals. The endangerment leading to the extinction of a language does not merely mean no one speaking the language any longer, it signifies the extinction of a whole speech community which is driven to annihilation, giving up its language of necessity—social, economic, political. The factors responsible for such endangerment are varied—the homogenizing effect of a ‘global’ culture propagated by the expansive market economy and the spread of the internet, socio-economic conditions and social prestige and the like. Decision-making about language recognition at regional/national levels, assimilation among speech communities, changes in ethnographic distribution and demographic patterning of a given geographical locale, the trend of upward mobility among the younger generation are some of the prominent reasons for the endangerment of languages worldwide.
India faces the crisis all the more since it has an extensive variety of languages across the length and breadth of the country. West Bengal with its fair share of the Himalayan ranges and the foothills, forests, stretches of sea coast, fertile agricultural planes is home to a number of languages and dialects—of hill and forest tribes, coastal people, people of the plains etc. Their dialects and language use are heavily marked by the hardships of their livelihood, their geographical location and their worldview. Many of these languages are orally transmitted and do not have a script; some again do not have a formal and developed grammar. Those that have a fully defined grammar book, tend to remain rather cloistered within their own community. Some face the danger of extinction because of the exclusivity and isolation of their communities; others lose their identity through a gradual process of appropriation into the dominant tongue. Some lose their speakers to more dominant Indian languages, others to the craze for adopting English as the more favoured language. In an atlas on endangered languages published by UNESCO (Moseley 2010) India is said to have 197 endangered languages of which 81 are vulnerable, 62 definitely endangered, 7 severely endangered and 42 are critically endangered. Five languages have already become extinct. This article would like to probe into some of the reasons for the endangerment of languages at different parts of West Bengal in particular and India in general.
The authority of the ‘spoken’ word: Politics of power and domination Language as a medium of self-expression, creativity as well as interpersonal communication wields enormous control over the life and mind of an individual and also a community. So the attempt to dominate over a people/tribe has often resulted in linguistic subjugation and control. At the microcosmic level this can be seen in the attempt of the ‘standard’ dialect to dominate over rural/regional dialects of a language, the conscious subordination of the less-favoured nuances (idiomatic, grammatical or phonological) of a language and the like. At the macrocosmic level this leads to the subjugation of tribal/numerically weaker languages to the dominant language in a multilingual set-up. In West Bengal, for example, languages other than Bengali would tend to be marginalized and turn vulnerable according to the number of its users. All the more so for tribal/geographically localized languages which are usually concentrated in small isolated pockets.
Language as marker of pride, social status: Language is not only a means of communication, it is also a mode of self presentation to the world. As a marker of higher class and superior upbringing adoption, of a dominant language is often visualized as a coveted option. This is especially true of languages of peripheral/marginal communities, who consider their own languages as a drawback, since it is the marker of their ethnic identity. This perception takes a twofold dimension—on the one hand, the older generation of the community holds on to the language defensively, as a symbol of their unique identity; on the other, the younger generation leans more towards the dominant language of the mainstream society for better social acceptance and inclusion. Both ways, the language is secluded from social contact and common use. It continues for sometime as the language of the home for the tribe and then grows endangered with the passing of the older generation.
The ‘choice’ of a language for the multi/bilingual youth: Bilingualism or multilingualism is not an exception in a country like India, rather the rule. It builds interaction between cultures, shares views and opinions, bridges gulfs. So the knowledge as well as use of more than one language by an individual speaker in a society is more beneficial than harmful for the spread of languages across the country. But the process of ‘choice’ of these languages and frequency of their use is significant. In our contemporary society the predominance of English and the craving for its use have relegated many regional languages to the background. The use and spread of English in the globalised India is an accepted fact, but an offshoot of this trend is the neglect of the regional languages. Where the mother tongue is a socially dominant language with huge numbers of native speakers the threat is not felt. But in case of small linguistic communities, this choice might lead to a total language shift. The younger generation often adopts a new (English or a dominant language of power) language abandoning the native one.
The ‘virtual’ space, camouflaging one’s identity, language: The process of linguistic/cultural homogenization that British colonialism initiated way back in 18th century is furthered by the rapid growth in information technology that has turned the earth into a global village. However we might extol its benefits, it has takes its toll on language variety. Except the few ‘virtually’ recognized languages, many ‘minor’ languages are becoming useless. The virtual space is a true labyrinth where not only one’s identity but also one’s language can be camouflaged—for greater visibility, for better acceptance into the coveted educated, intellectual, smart and eloquent upper stratum of the society.
Such a discussion leads us to certain essential questions about languages. How far and to what extent are our languages safe from the threat of extinction? Apart from taking measures to save the severely and critically endangered languages (such as Toto of Totopara) shouldn’t we start thinking in terms of the possibilities our ‘mainstream’ languages have of turning vulnerable with more and more speakers opting for some other language to preserve social status, ensure upward mobility, be a member of an elusive global community. Our “Save Trees”, “Save the Wild” or “Save Environment” programmes take off with the visualization of a nightmarish future—without clean water or breathable air, without greenery, plantation or the blue sky. Is it not high time that we start visualizing a world bereft of its linguistic and cultural variety where lookalike people in similar garments inhabiting lookalike cities speak the same language? The danger lies only round the corner, but we are blissfully ignorant of that. Let us put our forces together in saving the language variety, in preserving multiplicity of expression and culture in a pluralistic society. Save languages, save cultures.
Works Cited
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1987.
Moseley, Christopher. Ed.Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger, 3rd Edn. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.2010. Online version: http://www.unesco.org/culture/en/endangeredlanguages/atlas.